Wheat craft beer made from AFB1-contaminated wheat malt contains detectable mycotoxins, retains quality attributes, but differs in some fermentation metabolites.

Levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were measured during the production of wheat craft beer made with wheat malt contaminated with AFB1 (1.23 µg/kg). A wheat craft beer made with non-contaminated wheat malt was produced for comparison purposes. AFB1 was measured after mashing (malt after the mashing process), and in spent grain (spent grains are filtered to collect the wort - remaining sugar-rich liquid), sweet wort, green beer, spent yeast, and in beer. Physicochemical parameters (pH, titratable acidity, color parameters, total soluble solids), sugars, organic acids, alcohols, and phenolics were evaluated after mashing, and in sweet wort, green beer, and beer samples. Density and yeast counts were determined over 120 h of sweet wort fermentation every 24 h. The AFB1 levels in the final beer were 0.22 µg/L, while the spent grains and spent yeasts contained 0.71 ± 0.17 and 0.11 ± 0.03 µg/kg of AFB1, respectively. AFB1 contamination did not influence the final product's physicochemical parameters, density during fermentation, fructose, or glycerol content. Higher yeast counts were observed during the first 48 h of non-contaminated wheat craft beer fermentation, with higher ethanol, citric acid, and propionic acid contents and lower glucose, malic acid, and lactic acid contents compared with beer contaminated with AFB1. Non-contaminated wheat craft beer also had higher concentrations of gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, procyanidin A2, and procyanidin B1. AFB1 contamination of wheat malt may not affect basic quality parameters in wheat craft beer but can influence the final product's organic acid and phenolic contents. Our findings show that if wheat craft beer is made with contaminated malt, AFB1 can remain in the final product and may pose a risk to consumers.

A worldwide systematic review, meta-analysis, and health risk assessment study of mycotoxins in beers.

Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs), and zearalenone (ZEN), have been reported as beer contaminants. This systematic review and meta-analysis provide the prevalence and concentration of mycotoxins in beers and their worldwide distribution. Mycotoxin's exposure and cancer risk through beer consumption were determined. The overall pooled prevalence of mycotoxins in beers was 31% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 28%-35%; I2  = 90%, p = .00). The most prevalent mycotoxins in beers were DON and its derivatives (53%), OTA (52%), FBs (47%), followed by AFs (12%). Iran (99%), Hungary (95%), Denmark (92%), Armenia (83%), and Cyprus (83%) had the highest mycotoxin prevalence in beers. The global mycotoxins average concentration in beers was 12.52 µg/L (95% CI = 10.70-14.75 µg/L; I2  = 100%, p = .00). DON and its derivatives showed the highest concentration (26.91 µg/L), followed by FBs (23.19 µg/L), ZEN and its derivatives (20.25 µg/L), and AFs (15.65 µg/L). African region had the highest mycotoxins concentration (73.95 µg/L) mostly due to the high levels reported in beers from Cameroon (293.02 µg/L), Malawi (132.34 µg/L), and Eastern Cape province (126.12 µg/L). The meta-regression indicated stability (p ≥ .05) of the global pooled concentration of mycotoxins in beers over the years, whereas FBs concentration increased. The intake of DON and its derivatives, FBs, ZEN and its derivatives, and OTA through beers is of concern in African countries. OTA is also of concern in Brazil and Belgium. Results show high mycotoxins concentration in beers worldwide and highlight the health risks through contaminated beer consumption.

Aflatoxin M1 in Brazilian goat milk and health risk assessment.

Contamination of goat milk with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a public health concern. This study investigated filamentous fungi in goat feed and quantified AFM1 in milk samples (n = 108) from goat fed forage and concentrate. Based on the detected AFM1 concentration, risk assessment analyses were performed concerning the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) for one-year-old children and adults. Filamentous fungi were found in goat feed samples in a range of 3.1 ± 1.9 to 4.2 ± 0.2 log CFU/g. Five genera were identified, to cite Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus and Acremonium. Aspergillus species comprised A. flavus, A. niger, and A. ochraceus. All goat milk samples were contaminated with AFM1 (5.60-48.20 ng/L; mean 21.90 ± 10.28 ng/L) in amounts below the limits imposed by regulatory agencies. However, EDI values for AFM1 through goat milk estimated for one-year-old children were above the Tolerable Daily Intake. The calculated Hazard Index for one-year-old children indicated potential risk of liver cancer due to goat milk consumption. The Margin of Exposure values to AFM1 in one-year-old children and adults consuming goat milk as the unique milk source indicated increased health risk. Therefore, contamination of goat milk with AFM1 should be considered a high priority for Brazil's risk management actions.

Mycotoxins in artisanal beers: An overview of relevant aspects of the raw material, manufacturing steps and regulatory issues involved.

The consumption of artisanal beer has increased worldwide. Artisanal beers can include malted or unmalted wheat, maize, rice and sorghum, in addition to the basic ingredients. These grains can be infected by toxigenic fungi in the field or during storage and mycotoxins can be produced if they find favorable conditions. Mycotoxins may not be eliminated throughout the beer brewing and be detected in the final product. In addition, modified mycotoxins may also be formed during beer brewing. This review compiles relevant information about mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium in raw material of artisanal beer, as well as updates information about the production and fate of mycotoxins during the beer brewing process. Findings highlight that malting conditions favor the production of mycotoxins by the fungi contaminating cereals. Therefore, good agricultural and postharvest mitigation strategies are the most effective options for preventing the growth of toxigenic fungi and the production of mycotoxins in cereals. However, the final concentration of mycotoxin in artisanal beer is difficult to predict as it depends on the initial concentration contained in the raw material and the processing conditions. The current lack of limits of mycotoxins in artisanal beer underestimates possible risks to human health. In addition, modified mycotoxins, not detected by conventional methods, may be formed in artisanal beers. Maximum tolerated limits for these contaminants must be urgently established based on scientific data about transfer of mycotoxins throughout the artisanal beer brewery process.

Modeling aflatoxin B1 production by Aspergillus flavus during wheat malting for craft beer as a function of grains steeping degree, temperature and time of germination.

This study aimed to model the aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) production by A. flavus in wheat grains during malting for craft beer. A total of sixty-four different combinations of grains steeping degree (ST; 41, 43, 45 and 47%), temperature (13, 15, 17 and 19 °C) and time of germination (48, 72, 96 and 120 h), comprising the range of malting conditions that allow the production of quality malt, were assayed. AFB1 was produced in a range of 15.78 ± 3.54 µg/kg (41% ST, 13 °C for 48 h) to 284.66 ± 44.34 µg/kg (47% ST, 19 °C for 120 h). The regression model showing an acceptable fit to the experimental data (adjusted R2 0.84) for AFB1 as a function of grains steeping degree, temperature and time of germination. Results showed that AFB1 levels in wheat malt increase with increase of the temperature or time of germination. Within the range of tested malting conditions, no significant effects were observed for steeping degree on AFB1 levels in wheat malt. The generated model is useful to estimate the AFB1 levels in wheat malt. Findings highlight overall that if wheat grains are contaminated with A. flavus, AFB1 might be produced in malt in levels above the limits set by regulatory agencies, regardless the steeping conditions used.